Mental toughness and athletes’ use of psychological strategies

This study tested the relationship between mental toughness and athletes’ use of psychological performance strategies. A sample of 67 male (M age = 22.55 years, SD = 4.96) and 40 female athletes (M age = 21.08 years, SD = 2.81) acted as participants, and ranged from club / university to national level in a variety of sports. Participants completed the MTQ48 (Clough et al., 2002) to measure mental toughness, and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas et al., 1999) to measure the use of psychological strategies in practice and competition. Results of Pearson correlations and linear regression analyses revealed that self-talk, emotional control and relaxation strategies were significantly and positively (r = 0.26 to 0.37, P < 0.01) related to mental toughness in both practice and competition. Of the MTQ48 subscales, commitment was found to most frequently load against performance strategies and as such it is possible that the results of this study reflect highly committed performers seeking out performance enhancement strategies. Consistent with theoretical predictions, athletes of county standard and above reported significantly higher levels of mental toughness than club / university athletes (t105 = -2.25, P = 0.03)

Leadership preferences of mentally tough athletes

This study examined the leadership preferences of mentally tough athletes. A sample of 103 athletes (M age = 22.06 years, SD = 4.37) participated and ranged from club / university level to county standard in a variety of team sports. Participants completed the Leadership Scale for Sport – Preference Version (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978) to measure preferred leadership, and the MTQ48 (Clough et al., 2002) to measure mental toughness. Mental toughness was predicted to be significantly and positively related to a preference for training and instructive behaviours, and negatively related to a preference for social support. Linear regression analysis and Pearson correlations were used to analyse the data. Consistent with theoretical predictions, mental toughness was found to be significantly related to a preference for training and instructive behaviours (r = 0.40, P < .01). Results of linear regression analysis revealed the MTQ48 subscales of commitment and challenge were significant predictors of preference for training and instructive behaviours. Total mental toughness was not found to be significantly related to preference for social support, democratic behaviours, autocratic behaviours or positive feedback (P > .05). This suggests that coaches working with mentally tough athletes should consider emphasising training and instructive behaviours if they wish to attain congruence between actual and preferred leadership behaviours. Greater research into the influence of personality upon athlete leadership preferences is encouraged

The relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity

Mentally tough athletes are conceptualized as being able to function effectively in stressful situations and recent research has found small to moderate correlations between mental toughness and coping. Despite this no research has thus far examined the possibility that mentally tough athletes experience less intense emotions. This paper tested the relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity to determine whether mentally tough athletes generally experienced more or less intense emotions. A sample of 112 sport performers (55 men and 57 women) aged between 18 and 51 years (M = 29.3, s = 10.3) acted as participants, and ranged from recreational to national level in a variety of sports. Mental toughness and affect intensity were found to be unrelated. This is an important finding because it suggests participants with high or low levels of mental toughness do not characteristically experience more or less intense emotions. Thus there is no evidence to suggest the ability of mentally tough athletes to remain relatively unaffected by pressure or adversity is due to lower levels of affect intensity. More research is required to understand how mentally tough athletes (in comparison to less tough athletes) maintain control and high levels of performance in stressful circumstances

A cross-sectional analysis of mental toughness in a professional football academy

This study investigated mental toughness in an English Premier League football academy. 112 football players aged between 12 and 18 years of age completed the Mental Toughness Questionnaire 18 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002) as a measure of mental toughness. A cross-sectional design was used to test for differences in mental toughness across age groups, and data concerning players who were either retained or released by the club was also compared. A one-way ANOVA showed no differences in mental toughness between age groups, and an independent t-test also found no differences in the mental toughness of players who were either retained or released. These results suggest that older and more experienced academy football players do not possess higher levels of mental toughness than younger, less experienced players. Qualitative research involving academy staff and players is encouraged to provide a more detailed evaluation

Comparing two measures of mental toughness

This paper tested relations between two measures of mental toughness. A sample of 110 male athletes (M age = 20.81 years; SD = 2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing two questionnaires to assess mental toughness. It was hypothesized that scales and subscales from the two different instruments, which purported to measure the same or substantially overlapping scales, would be strongly correlated. Predictions concerning the expected relations were made a priori. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between higher order mental toughness scores (r = .75; p <.001). Correlations between similar mental toughness subscales were found to be positive and significant but somewhat lower than expected (r = .49 to .62). Results suggest instrument subscales with similar labels are not measuring the same components of mental toughness

“Unknown by you, they really watch you!”: experiencing the ageing, physically active body in cardiac rehabilitation.

There is a dearth of research on how the physically active body is experienced during rehabilitation from serious illness. This paper presents data obtained through fourteen interviews completed with participants in a cardiac rehabilitation scheme. A figurational approach was utilised which emphasised the need for participants to delineate their own logic of experience from the perspective of their active body during cardiac rehabilitation. Data were thematically analysed and individual experiences were situated in wider power relationships within and beyond the exercise class. Recurring themes emerged including participants’ under-estimation of initial symptoms, shock and dislocation created by diagnosis, and uncertainty created by treatment in unfamiliar circumstances. During rehabilitation, participants negotiated a complex interweaving of identities which centred upon their changing sense of embodiment. Self-images were socially produced and moderated by others in the rehabilitation figuration, including via health and exercise professionals and other participants. Respondents constantly defined and revised their own embodied identity in relation to other rehabilitating bodies and their own changing identity. The extent to which participants were empowered within the exercise setting was highly heterogeneous. Findings suggest that the messages participants receive about cardiac rehabilitation must reflect the heterogeneity of recovery trajectories that could be experienced

“Unbeknown to you, they really watch you!”: experiencing the ageing, physically active body in cardiac rehabilitation

Whilst Sociological studies of embodiment are increasing in the fields of ageing, physical activity and health are growing, there is a dearth of in-depth research on how the physically active body is experienced during rehabilitation from serious illness. This paper presents data obtained through fourteen interviews completed with participants in a cardiac rehabilitation scheme in the East of England. A figurational approach was utilised which emphasised the need for participants to delineate their own logic of experience from the perspective of their active body during cardiac rehabilitation. Data were thematically analysed using figurational principles as a guide. This permitted individual experiences to be situated in wider power relationships within and beyond the exercise class. Participants’ perceptions of their embodied self were grounded in embodied identities prior to, during and after treatment and perceptions of self in the present. A number of recurring themes emerged, including participants’ under-estimation of initial symptoms, shock and dislocation created by diagnosis, and uncertainty created by treatment in unfamiliar circumstances. During rehabilitation, participants negotiated a complex interweaving of identities which centred upon their changing sense of embodiment. Self-images were socially produced and moderated by others in the rehabilitation figuration, including via health and exercise professionals and other participants. Respondents constantly defined and revised their own embodied identity in relation to other rehabilitating bodies. The extent to which participants were empowered within the exercise setting was highly heterogeneous. This has implications for the delivery of exercise rehabilitation schemes, particularly in terms of the messages participants are given regarding the heterogeneity of recovery trajectories that could be experienced

Investigating the experience of flow in European Tour golfers

Objectives: This study explored how flow (commonly known as “the zone”) is experienced in elite golf, a sport which may be different to those studied previously due to its slower paced, stop-start nature. Design: In-depth, semi-structured interviews were employed to gain rich insight into the flow experiences of these participants. Method: The participants were 10 male professional golfers (Mean age = 37) who had competed on the European Tour for, on average, 10 full seasons. Five of these had won on the European Tour and two had Ryder Cup experience. The players were asked a range of questions relating to what the experience of flow is like within golf, and the interviews lasted, on average, 53 minutes. Results: Inductive thematic analysis was employed and 14 themes describing flow emerged, of which 11 displayed similarities to Csikszentmihalyi’s dimensions. Notably, however, these golfers reported an additional awareness of being in flow as it occurred, and even attempted to maximise the experience. Two other themes did not clearly fit with the original dimensions either: altered cognitive and kinaesthetic perceptions, and feeling calm and/or relaxed during the experience. Finally, the participants also perceived that they could observe others in flow, e.g., through changes in behaviour. Conclusions: These findings suggest possible revisions to the existing framework to more clearly describe the flow experience within elite golf and possibly other sporting contexts. The seemingly observable nature of flow may also be useful for researchers and, for example, within coaching

Exploring flow occurrence in elite golf

Research on flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) has traditionally focused on reactive, externally-paced sports (e.g., tennis) without exploring those that are self-paced and stop-start in nature. This study investigated the occurrence of flow in a sample of thirteen elite golfers by conducting semi-structured interviews discussing: (i) their experiences of flow, (ii) factors that influenced flow occurrence, and (iii) the controllability of these experiences. Results shared similarity with existing research in terms of the majority of influencing factors reported, including motivation, preparation, focus, psychological state, environmental and situational conditions, and arousal, and that flow was reported to be at least potentially controllable. Golf-specific influences were also noted, including pre-shot routines, use of psychological interventions, standard of performance, and maintenance of physical state, suggesting that flow may have occurred differently for this sample. Findings are discussed and applied recommendations are made that may help golfers put relevant factors in place to increase the likelihood of experiencing flow

Further examining the relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow in sport: a mediation analysis

The purpose of the study was to further examine the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow in sport. A sample of 256 athletes (M age = 23.65 years, SD = 5.43), competing at international (n = 59), national (n = 77), and club/university (n = 120) levels completed questionnaires assessing MT and dispositional flow. A significant and positive correlation was found between MT and dispositional flow (r = 0.50, p < 0.001). Mediation analysis revealed that MT had a significant direct effect on the flow dimensions of challenge-skills balance, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, sense of control and concentration on the task at hand, and significant indirect effects on concentration on the task at hand, sense of control, loss of self-consciousness, action-awareness merging and autotelic experience. Findings suggest that MT has direct and indirect effects on the characteristics of flow, offering new insights regarding optimal human functioning